Download PDF
Neuropediatrics
DOI: 10.1055/a-2509-8547
Review Article

Olfactory Dysfunction in Children and Adolescents—A Diagnostic Pathway

Janine Gellrich
1   Abteilung Neuropädiatrie, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
,
Elisabeth C. Lohrer
1   Abteilung Neuropädiatrie, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
2   Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
,
Thomas Hummel
3   Smell and Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
,
Valentin A. Schriever
4   Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Neurology, Neurometabolics and Prevention, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Olfactory disorders have so far played a subordinate role in pediatric care, although children can also be affected. Due to a lack of awareness, the diagnosis can often only be made after numerous visits to the doctor, although it can significantly impact the quality of life. Olfactory disorders in adults are usually acquired, while congenital causes dominate in children. To date, there are no specific recommendations for diagnosis in children. This article deals with the prevalence, causes, and diagnostic approaches of olfactory disorders in pediatrics. A structured diagnostic approach is fundamental, including a medical history and psychophysical olfactory tests, supplemented by specific examinations depending on the suspected diagnosis. Therapeutic approaches are limited, with a focus on counseling and olfactory training.

Keywords

olfaction - children - olfactory disorders - diagnostic

Note

This article was published first in German in: “Kinder- und Jugendarzt.” Lübeck: Hansisches Verlagskontor GmbH. 2024; issue 03, pp. 182–187.




Publication History

Received: 27 September 2024

Accepted: 02 January 2025

Article published online:
21 January 2025

© 2025. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Oswald-Hesse-Straße 50, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany

 

  • References

  • 1 Bojanowski V, Hummel T, Croy I. Isolierte congenitale Anosmie - Klinische und alltägliche Aspekte eines Lebens ohne Geruchssinn. Laryngorhinootologie 2013; 92 (01) 30-33
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 2 Stevenson RJ. An initial evaluation of the functions of human olfaction. Chem Senses 2010; 35 (01) 3-20
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 3 Schäfer L, Schriever VA, Croy I. Human olfactory dysfunction: causes and consequences. Cell Tissue Res 2021; 383 (01) 569-579
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 4 Croy I, Nordin S, Hummel T. Olfactory disorders and quality of life–an updated review. Chem Senses 2014; 39 (03) 185-194
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 5 Schaal B, Marlier L, Soussignan R. Olfactory function in the human fetus: evidence from selective neonatal responsiveness to the odor of amniotic fluid. Behav Neurosci 1998; 112 (06) 1438-1449
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 6 Oozeer NB, Forbes K, Clement AW, Kubba H. Management of paediatric olfactory dysfunction: how we do it. Clin Otolaryngol 2011; 36 (05) 494-499
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 7 Cameron EL. Olfactory perception in children. World J Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2018; 4 (01) 57-66
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 8 Temmel AF, Quint C, Schickinger-Fischer B, Klimek L, Stoller E, Hummel T. Characteristics of olfactory disorders in relation to major causes of olfactory loss. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2002; 128 (06) 635-641
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 9 Schriever VA, Hummel T. Etiologies of olfactory dysfunction in a pediatric population: based on a retrospective analysis of data from an outpatient clinic. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2020; 277 (11) 3213-3216
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 10 Schriever VA, Gellrich J, von der Hagen M, Hummel T. Acquired olfactory dysfunction in children and adolescents: a systematic review of the literature. Chem Senses 2018; 43 (08) 571-581
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 11 Deller M, Gellrich J, Lohrer EC, Schriever VA. Genetics of congenital olfactory dysfunction: a systematic review of the literature. Chem Senses 2022; 47: bjac028
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 12 Karstensen HG, Tommerup N. Isolated and syndromic forms of congenital anosmia. Clin Genet 2012; 81 (03) 210-215
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 13 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hals-Nasen-Ohren-Heilkunde. Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie e.V. (DGHNO-KHC). S2k-Leitlinie Riech- und Schmeckstörungen. 2023 . Accessed November 15, 2023 at: https://register.awmf.org/de/leitlinien/detail/017-050
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 14 Hernandez AK, Landis BN, Altundag A. et al. Olfactory nomenclature: an orchestrated effort to clarify terms and definitions of dysosmia, anosmia, hyposmia, normosmia, hyperosmia, olfactory intolerance, parosmia, and phantosmia/olfactory hallucination. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 2023; 85 (06) 312-320
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 15 Philpott CM, Wolstenholme CR, Goodenough PC, Clark A, Murty GE. Comparison of subjective perception with objective measurement of olfaction. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2006; 134 (03) 488-490
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 16 Marlier L, Schaal B. Human newborns prefer human milk: conspecific milk odor is attractive without postnatal exposure. Child Dev 2005; 76 (01) 155-168
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 17 Gellrich J, Breuer AS, Han P, Güdücü C, Hummel T, Schriever VA. Central nervous system processing of floral odor and mother's milk odor in infants. Chem Senses 2021; 46: bjab024
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 18 Schriever VA, Góis-Eanes M, Schuster B, Huart C, Hummel T. Olfactory event-related potentials in infants. J Pediatr 2014; 165 (02) 372-375.e2
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 19 Aoyama S, Toshima T, Saito Y. et al. Maternal breast milk odour induces frontal lobe activation in neonates: a NIRS study. Early Hum Dev 2010; 86 (09) 541-545
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 20 Gellrich J, Sparing-Paschke LM, Hummel T, Schriever VA. The influence of cognitive parameters on olfactory assessment in healthy children and adolescents. Chem Senses 2021; 46: bjaa072
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 21 Kobal G, Hummel T, Sekinger B, Barz S, Roscher S, Wolf S. “Sniffin' sticks”: screening of olfactory performance. Rhinology 1996; 34 (04) 222-226
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 22 Oleszkiewicz A, Schriever VA, Croy I, Hähner A, Hummel T. Updated Sniffin' Sticks normative data based on an extended sample of 9139 subjects. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2019; 276 (03) 719-728
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 23 Cameron EL, Doty RL. Odor identification testing in children and young adults using the smell wheel. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2013; 77 (03) 346-350
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 24 Mariño-Sánchez F, Valls-Mateus M, Fragola C. et al. Pediatric Barcelona Olfactory Test ̶ 6 (pBOT-6): validation of a combined odor identification and threshold screening test in healthy Spanish children and adolescents. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2020; 30 (06) 439-447
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 25 Schriever VA, Agosin E, Altundag A. et al. Development of an international odor identification test for children: the Universal Sniff Test. J Pediatr 2018; 198: 265-272.e3
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 26 Gellrich J, Sparing-Paschke LM, Thieme T. et al. Normative data for olfactory threshold and odor identification in children and adolescents. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2019; 123: 5-9
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 27 Doty RL, Shaman P, Dann M. Development of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test: a standardized microencapsulated test of olfactory function. Physiol Behav 1984; 32 (03) 489-502
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 28 Schriever VA, Boerner C, Mori E, Smitka M, Hummel T. Changes of olfactory processing in childhood and adolescence. Neuroscience 2015; 287: 15-22
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 29 Schriever VA, Han P, Weise S, Hösel F, Pellegrino R, Hummel T. Time frequency analysis of olfactory induced EEG-power change. PLoS One 2017; 12 (10) e0185596
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 30 Huart C, Legrain V, Hummel T, Rombaux P, Mouraux A. Time-frequency analysis of chemosensory event-related potentials to characterize the cortical representation of odors in humans. PLoS One 2012; 7 (03) e33221
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 31 Altundag A, Cayonu M, Kayabasoglu G. et al. Modified olfactory training in patients with postinfectious olfactory loss. Laryngoscope 2015; 125 (08) 1763-1766
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 32 Damm M, Pikart LK, Reimann H. et al. Olfactory training is helpful in postinfectious olfactory loss: a randomized, controlled, multicenter study. Laryngoscope 2014; 124 (04) 826-831
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 33 Pieniak M, Seidel K, Oleszkiewicz A. et al. Olfactory training effects in children after mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2023; 37 (11) 1272-1284
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 34 Pieniak M, Oleszkiewicz A, Avaro V, Calegari F, Hummel T. Olfactory training - Thirteen years of research reviewed. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 141: 104853
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 35 Gellrich J, Zickmüller C, Thieme T. et al. Olfactory function after mild traumatic brain injury in children-a longitudinal case control study. Cereb Cortex 2024; 34 (04) bhae162
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar