Neuroethics across the Disorders of Consciousness Care Continuum

Michael J. Young; Andrew Peterson

doi:10.1055/a-1883-0701

Seminars in Neurology, Table of Contents

Semin Neurol 2022; 42(03): 375-392
DOI: 10.1055/a-1883-0701

Review Article

Neuroethics across the Disorders of Consciousness Care Continuum

Michael J. Young

¹Division of Neurocritical Care, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts

,

Andrew Peterson

²Institute for Philosophy and Public Policy and Department of Philosophy, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia

› Author Affiliations

Abstract

This review provides an ethical analysis of disorders of consciousness (DoC) along the care continuum, from preinjury to injury, acute care to subacute care and early rehabilitation, and finally transitioning to chronic rehabilitation and societal reintegration. We provide an actionable, chronological assessment of ethical issues related to DoC care. This expands upon established ethics literature, which focuses almost exclusively on the clinical encounter for DoC. Our goal is to broaden the aperture of ethical analysis to address how social and environmental conditions predispose some persons to brain injury, and how such conditions might also pose barriers to meaningful societal reintegration after recovery.

Keywords

disorders of consciousness coma - minimally conscious state brain injury - vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome - neuroethics

Full Text

References

References
1 Zulato E, Montali L, Bauer MW. Understanding a liminal condition: comparing emerging representations of the “vegetative state”. Eur J Soc Psychol 2021; 51 (06) 936-950
2 Bird-David N, Israeli T. A moment dead, a moment alive: how a situational personhood emerges in the vegetative state in an Israeli hospital unit. Am Anthropol 2010; 112 (01) 54-65
3 Kaufman SR, Morgan LM. The anthropology of the beginnings and ends of life. Annu Rev Anthropol 2005; 34: 317-341
4 Lock M. Contesting the natural in Japan: moral dilemmas and technologies of dying. Cult Med Psychiatry 1995; 19 (01) 1-38
5 Nettleton S, Kitzinger J, Kitzinger C. A diagnostic illusory? The case of distinguishing between “vegetative” and “minimally conscious” states. Soc Sci Med 2014; 116: 134-141
6 Zaksh Y, Yehene E, Elyashiv M, Altman A. Partially dead, partially separated: establishing the mechanism between ambiguous loss and grief reaction among caregivers of patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness. Clin Rehabil 2019; 33 (02) 345-356
7 Racine E, Amaram R, Seidler M, Karczewska M, Illes J. Media coverage of the persistent vegetative state and end-of-life decision-making. Neurology 2008; 71 (13) 1027-1032
8 Young MJ, Bodien YG, Edlow BL. Ethical considerations in clinical trials for disorders of consciousness. Brain Sci 2022; 12 (02) 211
9 Langlois JA, Rutland-Brown W, Thomas KE. The incidence of traumatic brain injury among children in the United States: differences by race. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2005; 20 (03) 229-238
10 Daugherty J, Waltzman D, Sarmiento K, Xu L. Traumatic brain injury–related deaths by race/ethnicity, sex, intent, and mechanism of injury—United States, 2000–2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2019; 68 (46) 1050-1056
11 Vassallo JL, Proctor-Weber Z, Lebowitz BK, Curtiss G, Vanderploeg RD. Psychiatric risk factors for traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2007; 21 (06) 567-573
12 Liao Y-T, Ku Y-H, Chen H-M. et al. Effect of medication on risk of traumatic brain injury in patients with bipolar disorder: a nationwide population-based cohort study. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35 (08) 962-970
13 Chi Y-C, Wu H-L, Chu C-P, Huang M-C, Lee P-C, Chen Y-Y. Traumatic brain injury and affective disorder: a nationwide cohort study in Taiwan, 2000-2010. J Affect Disord 2016; 191: 56-61
14 Eskander N, Prabhudesai S, Imran H, Ceren Amuk O, Patel RS. Alcohol use disorder increases risk of traumatic brain injury-related hospitalization: insights from 3.8 million children and adolescent inpatients. Cureus 2020; 12 (06) e8740
15 Corrigan JD, Bogner J, Holloman C. Lifetime history of traumatic brain injury among persons with substance use disorders. Brain Inj 2012; 26 (02) 139-150
16 Ramesh D, Keyser-Marcus LA, Ma L. et al. Prevalence of traumatic brain injury in cocaine-dependent research volunteers. Am J Addict 2015; 24 (04) 341-347
17 Lindquist LK, Love HC, Elbogen EB. Traumatic brain injury in Iraq and Afghanistan veterans: new results from a national random sample study. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2017; 29 (03) 254-259
18 Elder GA. Update on TBI and cognitive impairment in military veterans. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2015; 15 (10) 68
19 Silva MA, VandenBussche Jantz AB, Klocksieben F. et al. Unmet rehabilitation needs indirectly influence life satisfaction 5 years after traumatic brain injury: a Veterans Affairs TBI Model Systems study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2021; 102 (01) 58-67
20 Dismuke-Greer C, Fakhry S, Horner M. et al. Ethnicity/race and service-connected disability disparities in civilian traumatic brain injury mechanism of injury and VHA health services costs in military veterans: evidence from a Level 1 Trauma Center and VA Medical Center. Trauma 2021; 23 (03) 188-197
21 Garcia A, Miles SR, Reljic T. et al. Neurobehavioral symptoms in U.S. Special Operations Forces in rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury: a TBI Model Systems study. Mil Med 2021; usab347
22 Young JT, Hughes N. Traumatic brain injury and homelessness: from prevalence to prevention. Lancet Public Health 2020; 5 (01) e4-e5
23 Stubbs JL, Thornton AE, Sevick JM. et al. Traumatic brain injury in homeless and marginally housed individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health 2020; 5 (01) e19-e32
24 Topolovec-Vranic J, Ennis N, Colantonio A. et al. Traumatic brain injury among people who are homeless: a systematic review. BMC Public Health 2012; 12 (01) 1059
25 Allely CS. Prevalence and assessment of traumatic brain injury in prison inmates: a systematic PRISMA review. Brain Inj 2016; 30 (10) 1161-1180
26 McPherson JI. Traumatic brain injury among refugees and asylum seekers. Disabil Rehabil 2019; 41 (10) 1238-1242
27 Slaughter B, Fann JR, Ehde D. Traumatic brain injury in a county jail population: prevalence, neuropsychological functioning and psychiatric disorders. Brain Inj 2003; 17 (09) 731-741
28 Weinstein CS, Fucetola R, Mollica R. Neuropsychological issues in the assessment of refugees and victims of mass violence. Neuropsychol Rev 2001; 11 (03) 131-141
29 Saleem G, Haider M, Leddy J, Willer B, Fitzpatrick J. Prevalence and risk factors for intimate partner violence-related brain injury in New York. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2021; 102 (10) e35
30 Liu LY, Bush WS, Koyutürk M, Karakurt G. Interplay between traumatic brain injury and intimate partner violence: data driven analysis utilizing electronic health records. BMC Womens Health 2020; 20 (01) 269
31 Ivany AS, Bullock L, Schminkey D, Wells K, Sharps P, Kools S. Living in fear and prioritizing safety: exploring women's lives after traumatic brain injury from intimate partner violence. Qual Health Res 2018; 28 (11) 1708-1718
32 Smirl JD, Jones KE, Copeland P, Khatra O, Taylor EH, Van Donkelaar P. Characterizing symptoms of traumatic brain injury in survivors of intimate partner violence. Brain Inj 2019; 33 (12) 1529-1538
33 Yue JK, Upadhyayula PS, Avalos LN, Phelps RRL, Suen CG, Cage TA. Concussion and mild-traumatic brain injury in rural settings: epidemiology and specific health care considerations. J Neurosci Rural Pract 2020; 11 (01) 23-33
34 Yue JK, Upadhyayula PS, Avalos LN, Cage TA. Pediatric traumatic brain injury in the United States: rural-urban disparities and considerations. Brain Sci 2020; 10 (03) 135
35 Dismuke-Greer CE, Gebregziabher M, Ritchwood T. et al. Geographic disparities in mortality risk within a racially diverse sample of US Veterans with traumatic brain injury. Health Equity 2018; 2 (01) 304-312
36 Kane WG, Wright DA, Fu R, Carlson KF. Racial/ethnic and insurance status disparities in discharge to posthospitalization care for patients with traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2014; 29 (06) E10-E17
37 McQuistion K, Zens T, Jung HS. et al. Insurance status and race affect treatment and outcome of traumatic brain injury. J Surg Res 2016; 205 (02) 261-271
38 Gao S, Kumar RG, Wisniewski SR, Fabio A. Disparities in health care utilization of adults with traumatic brain injuries are related to insurance, race and ethnicity: a systematic review. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2018; 33 (03) E40-E50
39 Maas AIR, Menon DK, Adelson PD. et al; InTBIR Participants and Investigators. Traumatic brain injury: integrated approaches to improve prevention, clinical care, and research. Lancet Neurol 2017; 16 (12) 987-1048
40 Young MJ. Compassionate care for the unconscious and incapacitated. Am J Bioeth 2020; 20 (02) 55-57
41 Rando-Matos Y, Vives-Argilagós T, Rodero-Pérez E. et al. Effectiveness of a brief advance directive intervention in primary care: a randomized clinical trial. Patient Educ Couns 2021; 104 (01) 207-212
42 Yadav KN, Gabler NB, Cooney E. et al. Approximately one in three US adults completes any type of advance directive for end-of-life care. Health Aff (Millwood) 2017; 36 (07) 1244-1251
43 Fridman I, Hart JL, Yadav KN, Higgins ET. Perspectives on using decision-making nudges in physician-patient communications. PLoS One 2018; 13 (09) e0202874
44 Lamprell K, Tran Y, Arnolda G, Braithwaite J. Nudging clinicians: a systematic scoping review of the literature. J Eval Clin Pract 2021; 27 (01) 175-192
45 Fineberg HV. The paradox of disease prevention: celebrated in principle, resisted in practice. JAMA 2013; 310 (01) 85-90
46 Wright DW, Kellermann A, McGuire LC, Chen B, Popovic T. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). CDC grand rounds: reducing severe traumatic brain injury in the United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2013; 62 (27) 549-552
47 Shuttleworth-Edwards A, Whitefield V. Ethically we can no longer sit on the fence-a neuropsychological perspective on the cerebrally hazardous contact sports. S Afr J Sports Med 2007; 19 (02) 32-38
48 Lowrey KM. State laws addressing youth sports-related traumatic brain injury and the future of concussion law and policy. J Bus & Tech L 2015; 10: 61
49 Bachynski KE, Goldberg DS. Youth sports & public health: framing risks of mild traumatic brain injury in American football and ice hockey. J Law Med Ethics 2014; 42 (03) 323-333
50 Lowrey KM, Morain SR, Baugh CM. Do ethics demand evaluation of public health laws? Shifting scientific sands and the case of youth sports-related traumatic brain injury laws. J Health Care Law Policy 2016; 19 (01) 99-117
51 Register-Mihalik J, Baugh C, Kroshus E, Y Kerr Z, Valovich McLeod TC. A multifactorial approach to sport-related concussion prevention and education: application of the socioecological framework. J Athl Train 2017; 52 (03) 195-205
52 Yang J, Comstock RD, Yi H, Harvey HH, Xun P. New and recurrent concussions in high-school athletes before and after traumatic brain injury laws, 2005–2016. Am J Public Health 2017; 107 (12) 1916-1922
53 Parsons JT, Baugh C. The evolving landscape of policies, rules, and law in sport-related concussion. Handb Clin Neurol 2018; 158: 257-267
54 Beidler E, Welch Bacon CE, Hattrup N, Powers C, Saitz L, McLeod TV. Going beyond the state law: investigating high school sport-related concussion protocols. J Athl Train 2020; 57 (01) 32-43
55 Swift TL, Wilson SL. Misconceptions about brain injury among the general public and non-expert health professionals: an exploratory study. Brain Inj 2001; 15 (02) 149-165
56 Hux K, Schram CD, Goeken T. Misconceptions about brain injury: a survey replication study. Brain Inj 2006; 20 (05) 547-553
57 Guilmette TJ, Paglia MF. The public's misconception about traumatic brain injury: a follow up survey. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2004; 19 (02) 183-189
58 Block CK, West SE, Goldin Y. Misconceptions and misattributions about traumatic brain injury: an integrated conceptual framework. PM R 2016; 8 (01) 58-68.e4 , e4
59 McClure J. The role of causal attributions in public misconceptions about brain injury. Rehabil Psychol 2011; 56 (02) 85-93
60 Pressman HT. Traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: case management and insurance-related issues. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2007; 18 (01) 165-174 , viii
61 Ang NB, Wasserman JA. Prevalence of traumatic brain injury among the guests at a low-barrier homeless shelter. BMC Res Notes 2021; 14 (01) 44
62 Moutier C. Suicide prevention in the COVID-19 era: transforming threat into opportunity. JAMA Psychiatry 2020; 78 (04) 433-438
63 Sisti DA, Joffe S. Implications of zero suicide for suicide prevention research. JAMA 2018; 320 (16) 1633-1634
64 Sisti D, Mann JJ, Oquendo MA. Toward a distinct mental disorder—suicidal behavior. JAMA Psychiatry 2020; 77 (07) 661-662
65 Miller GF, Kegler SR, Stone DM. Traumatic brain injury-related deaths from firearm suicide: United States, 2008-2017. Am J Public Health 2020; 110 (06) 897-899
66 Byers AL, Li Y, Barnes DE, Seal KH, Boscardin WJ, Yaffe K. A national study of TBI and risk of suicide and unintended death by overdose and firearms. Brain Inj 2020; 34 (03) 328-334
67 Au DK. Brain injury, brain degeneration, and loss of personhood. The Moral Status of Personhood: Perspectives on Bioethics. 2000: 209-217
68 Gelech JM, Desjardins M. I am many: the reconstruction of self following acquired brain injury. Qual Health Res 2011; 21 (01) 62-74
69 Thomas EJ, Levack WM, Taylor WJ. Self-reflective meaning making in troubled times: change in self-identity after traumatic brain injury. Qual Health Res 2014; 24 (08) 1033-1047
70 Paterson J, Stewart J. Adults with acquired brain injury: perceptions of their social world. Rehabil Nurs 2002; 27 (01) 13-18
71 Villa D, Causer H, Riley GA. Experiences that challenge self-identity following traumatic brain injury: a meta-synthesis of qualitative research. Disabil Rehabil 2021; 43 (23) 3298-3314
72 Gardner AJ, Zafonte R. Neuroepidemiology of traumatic brain injury. Handb Clin Neurol 2016; 138: 207-223
73 Thill C, Huynh-Moynot S, Giacardi C. Diagnosis of reversible causes of coma. Lancet 2015; 385 (9974): 1178-1179
74 Rabinstein AA. Acute Coma. Neurological Emergencies. Springer; 2020: 1-13
75 Nabbout R, Vezzani A, Dulac O, Chiron C. Acute encephalopathy with inflammation-mediated status epilepticus. Lancet Neurol 2011; 10 (01) 99-108
76 Fischer D, Snider SB, Barra ME. et al. Disorders of consciousness associated with COVID-19: a prospective multimodal study of recovery and brain connectivity. Neurology 2022; 98 (03) e315-e325
77 Lamote I, Calle P, Lyphout C, Van de Voorde P. Adequacy of bystander actions in unconscious patients: an audit study in the Ghent region (Belgium). Eur J Emerg Med 2020; 27 (02) 105-109
78 Berdowski J, Beekhuis F, Zwinderman AH, Tijssen JG, Koster RW. Importance of the first link: description and recognition of an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in an emergency call. Circulation 2009; 119 (15) 2096-2102
79 Olasveengen TM, Semeraro F, Ristagno G. et al. European Resuscitation Council guidelines 2021: basic life support. Resuscitation 2021; 161: 98-114
80 Semeraro F, Greif R, Böttiger BW. et al. European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2021: systems saving lives. Resuscitation 2021; 161: 80-97
81 Franschman G, Verburg N, Brens-Heldens V. et al. Effects of physician-based emergency medical service dispatch in severe traumatic brain injury on prehospital run time. Injury 2012; 43 (11) 1838-1842
82 Franschman G, Peerdeman SM, Greuters S. et al; ALARM-TBI Investigators. Prehospital endotracheal intubation in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: guidelines versus reality. Resuscitation 2009; 80 (10) 1147-1151
83 Rognås L, Hansen TM, Kirkegaard H, Tønnesen E. Pre-hospital critical care anaesthesiologists and traumatic brain injury-guideline adherence. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2014; 22 (01) 1
84 Boer C, Franschman G, Loer SA. Prehospital management of severe traumatic brain injury: concepts and ongoing controversies. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2012; 25 (05) 556-562
85 Cnossen MC, Scholten AC, Lingsma HF. et al. Adherence to guidelines in adult patients with traumatic brain injury: a living systematic review. J Neurotrauma 2021; 38 (08) 1072-1085
86 Hoogmartens O, Heselmans A, Van de Velde S. et al. Evidence-based prehospital management of severe traumatic brain injury: a comparative analysis of current clinical practice guidelines. Prehosp Emerg Care 2014; 18 (02) 265-273
87 Graves JM, Kannan N, Mink RB. et al; Pediatric Guideline Adherence and Outcomes Study. Guideline adherence and hospital costs in pediatric severe traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2016; 17 (05) 438-443
88 Bosson N, Tolles J, Shavelle D. et al. Variation in post-cardiac arrest care within a regional EMS system. Prehosp Emerg Care 2021; 1-10
89 McMullan JT, Ventura A, LeBlanc DP. Emergency medical services traumatic brain injury protocols do not reflect Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines. Prehosp Emerg Care 2021; 25 (03) 347-350
90 Minardi J, Crocco TJ. Management of traumatic brain injury: first link in chain of survival. Mt Sinai J Med 2009; 76 (02) 138-144
91 Matthys J, Buylaert W, De Paepe P, Thoen A, Matthijs J-P, De Sutter A. Should the general practitioner be prepared for the patient with decreased consciousness or coma?. Eur J Emerg Med 2009; 16 (03) 163-165
92 Bernard SA, Smith K, Porter R. et al. Paramedic rapid sequence intubation in patients with non-traumatic coma. Emerg Med J 2015; 32 (01) 60-64
93 Stevens RD, Cadena RS, Pineda J. Emergency neurological life support: Approach to the patient with coma. Neurocrit Care 2015; 23 (Suppl. 02) S69-S75
94 Spaite DW, Bobrow BJ, Keim SM. et al. Association of statewide implementation of the prehospital traumatic brain injury treatment guidelines with patient survival following traumatic brain injury: the Excellence in Prehospital Injury Care (EPIC) Study. JAMA Surg 2019; 154 (07) e191152
95 Bledsoe BE, Casey MJ, Feldman J. et al. Glasgow Coma Scale scoring is often inaccurate. Prehosp Disaster Med 2015; 30 (01) 46-53
96 Reith FC, Van den Brande R, Synnot A, Gruen R, Maas AI. The reliability of the Glasgow Coma Scale: a systematic review. Intensive Care Med 2016; 42 (01) 3-15
97 DiBrito SR, Cerullo M, Goldstein SD, Ziegfeld S, Stewart D, Nasr IW. Reliability of Glasgow Coma Score in pediatric trauma patients. J Pediatr Surg 2018; 53 (09) 1789-1794
98 Stratton SJ. Glasgow coma scale score in trauma triage: a measurement without meaning. Ann Emerg Med 2018; 72 (03) 270-271
99 Rozenfeld M, Givon A, Trauma Group I, Peleg K. The reliability of the Glasgow Coma Scale in detecting traumatic brain injury: the continuous effect of age. Brain Inj 2020; 34 (04) 515-519
100 Lane PL, Báez AA, Brabson T, Burmeister DD, Kelly JJ. Effectiveness of a Glasgow Coma Scale instructional video for EMS providers. Prehosp Disaster Med 2002; 17 (03) 142-146
101 Härtl R, Gerber LM, Iacono L, Ni Q, Lyons K, Ghajar J. Direct transport within an organized state trauma system reduces mortality in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 2006; 60 (06) 1250-1256 , discussion 1256
102 Missios S, Bekelis K. Transport mode to level I and II trauma centers and survival of pediatric patients with traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31 (14) 1321-1328
103 Berlot G, La Fata C, Bacer B. et al. Influence of prehospital treatment on the outcome of patients with severe blunt traumatic brain injury: a single-centre study. Eur J Emerg Med 2009; 16 (06) 312-317
104 Davis DP, Peay J, Serrano JA. et al. The impact of aeromedical response to patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Ann Emerg Med 2005; 46 (02) 115-122
105 Joosse P, Saltzherr T-P, van Lieshout WA. et al; TraumaNet AMC and Collaborating Hospitals. Impact of secondary transfer on patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012; 72 (02) 487-490
106 Pickering A, Cooper K, Harnan S, Sutton A, Mason S, Nicholl J. Impact of prehospital transfer strategies in major trauma and head injury: systematic review, meta-analysis, and recommendations for study design. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2015; 78 (01) 164-177
107 Faul M, Xu L, Sasser SM. Hospitalized traumatic brain injury: low trauma center utilization and high interfacility transfers among older adults. Prehosp Emerg Care 2016; 20 (05) 594-600
108 Andrew E, Jones C, Stephenson M. et al. Aligning ambulance dispatch priority to patient acuity: a methodology. Emerg Med Australas 2019; 31 (03) 405-410
109 Gnesin F, Møller AL, Mills EHA. et al. Rapid dispatch for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is associated with improved survival. Resuscitation 2021; 163: 176-183
110 Daya MR, Lupton JR. Time from call to dispatch and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest outcomes. Resuscitation 2021; 163: 198-199
111 Leira EC, Hess DC, Torner JC, Adams Jr HP. Rural-urban differences in acute stroke management practices: a modifiable disparity. Arch Neurol 2008; 65 (07) 887-891
112 Deeb A-P, Phelos HM, Peitzman AB, Billiar TR, Sperry JL, Brown JB. Disparities in rural versus urban field triage: risk and mitigating factors for undertriage. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2020; 89 (01) 246-253
113 Sugerman DE, Xu L, Pearson WS, Faul M. Patients with severe traumatic brain injury transferred to a Level I or II trauma center: United States, 2007 to 2009. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012; 73 (06) 1491-1499
114 Ward MJ, Shutter LA, Branas CC, Adeoye O, Albright KC, Carr BG. Geographic access to US neurocritical care units registered with the neurocritical care society. Neurocrit Care 2012; 16 (02) 232-240
115 Newgard CD, Uribe-Leitz T, Haider AH. Undertriage remains a vexing problem for even the most highly developed trauma systems: the need for innovations in field triage. JAMA Surg 2018; 153 (04) 328
116 Morris RS, Karam BS, Murphy PB. et al. Field-triage, hospital-triage and triage-assessment: a literature review of the current phases of adult trauma triage. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2021; 90 (06) e138-e145
117 Zhou J, Wang T, Belenkiy I, Hardcastle TC, Rouby J-J, Jiang B. International Trauma Rescue & Treatment Association (ITRTA) Study Group. Management of severe trauma worldwide: implementation of trauma systems in emerging countries: China, Russia and South Africa. Crit Care 2021; 25 (01) 286
118 Lee E, McDonald M, O'Neill E, Montgomery W. Statewide ambulance coverage of a mixed region of urban, rural and frontier under travel time catchment areas. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18 (05) 2638
119 Young MJ. Neuroethics in the era of teleneurology. Semin Neurol 2022; 42 (01) 67-76
120 Lee E, McDonald M, Montgomery W, O'Neill E. Spatial key performance indicators on the statewide ambulance service coverage of multiple regional classifications. Trans GIS 2021; 25 (04) 2125-2145
121 Faigle R. Location, location, location: the rural-urban divide in intracerebral hemorrhage mortality. Neurocrit Care 2020; 32 (03) 694-696
122 Emerson P, Dodds N, Green DR, Jansen JO. Geographical access to critical care services in Scotland. J Intensive Care Soc 2018; 19 (01) 6-14
123 Horst MA, Jammula S, Gross BW. et al. Development of a trauma system and optimal placement of trauma centers using geospatial mapping. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2018; 84 (03) 441-448
124 Burkholder TW, Hill K, Calvello Hynes EJ. Developing emergency care systems: a human rights-based approach. Bull World Health Organ 2019; 97 (09) 612-619
125 Winchell RJ, Xu P, Mount LE, Huegerich R. Development of a geospatial approach for the quantitative analysis of trauma center access. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2019; 86 (03) 397-405
126 Amato SS, Benson JS, Murphy S. et al. Geographic coverage and verification of trauma centers in a rural state: highlighting the utility of location allocation for trauma system planning. J Am Coll Surg 2021; 232 (01) 1-7
127 Schmidt TA, Hickman SE, Tolle SW, Brooks HS. The physician orders for life-sustaining treatment program: Oregon Emergency Medical Technicians' practical experiences and attitudes. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004; 52 (09) 1430-1434
128 Morrison RS, Olson E, Mertz KR, Meier DE. The inaccessibility of advance directives on transfer from ambulatory to acute care settings. JAMA 1995; 274 (06) 478-482
129 Lee RY, Brumback LC, Sathitratanacheewin S. et al. Association of physician orders for life-sustaining treatment with ICU admission among patients hospitalized near the end of life. JAMA 2020; 323 (10) 950-960
130 Hickman SE, Sabatino CP, Moss AH, Nester JW. The POLST (Physician Orders for Life-Sustaining Treatment) paradigm to improve end-of-life care: potential state legal barriers to implementation. J Law Med Ethics 2008; 36 (01) 119-140 , 4
131 Sabatino CP. Survey of state EMS-DNR laws and protocols. J Law Med Ethics 1999; 27 (04) 297-315 , 294
132 “Do Not Attempt Resuscitation” Orders in the Out-of-Hospital Setting. 2021 . Accessed June 30, 2022 at: https://www.acep.org/life-as-a-physician/ethics–legal/ethics/dnar-orders-in-the-out-of-hospital-setting/
133 Hickman SE, Torke AM, Sachs GA. et al. Factors associated with concordance between POLST orders and current treatment preferences. J Am Geriatr Soc 2021; 69 (07) 1865-1876
134 Rodado EP, Sanchez DP, Grifo MG. Advance directives: comparison of current legislation within the European Union. Spanish Journal of Legal Medicine 2021; 47 (02) 66-73
135 Hickman SE, Torke AM, Heim Smith N. et al. Reasons for discordance and concordance between POLST orders and current treatment preferences. J Am Geriatr Soc 2021; 69 (07) 1933-1940
136 Haywood K, Dainty KN. Life after cardiac arrest: the importance of engaging with the ‘forgotten patient’. Resuscitation 2018; 128: A1-A2
137 Brinkrolf P, Metelmann B, Metelmann C. et al. One out of three bystanders of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests shows signs of pathological psychological processing weeks after the incident - results from structured telephone interviews. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2021; 29 (01) 131
138 Košir M, Simonič B, Gostečnik C. et al. Relational family therapy in the treatment of sudden cardiac arrest survivors and their relatives. The Person and the Challenges The Journal of Theology, Education. Canon Law and Social Studies Inspired by Pope John Paul II 2021; 11 (01) 249-270
139 Douma MJ, Graham TAD, Ali S. et al. What are the care needs of families experiencing cardiac arrest? A survivor and family led scoping review. Resuscitation 2021; 168: 119-141
140 Giacino JT, Katz DI, Schiff ND. et al. Practice guideline update recommendations summary: disorders of consciousness: report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology; the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine; and the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2018; 99 (09) 1699-1709
141 Kondziella D, Bender A, Diserens K. et al; EAN Panel on Coma, Disorders of Consciousness. European Academy of Neurology guideline on the diagnosis of coma and other disorders of consciousness. Eur J Neurol 2020; 27 (05) 741-756
142 Turner-Stokes L. Prolonged disorders of consciousness: new national clinical guidelines from the Royal College of Physicians, London. Clin Med (Lond) 2014; 14 (01) 4-5
143 Scolding N, Owen AM, Keown J. Prolonged disorders of consciousness: a critical evaluation of the new UK guidelines. Brain 2021; 144 (06) 1655-1660
144 Provencio JJ, Hemphill JC, Claassen J. et al; Neurocritical Care Society Curing Coma Campaign. The curing coma campaign: framing initial scientific challenges—proceedings of the first curing coma campaign scientific advisory council meeting. Neurocrit Care 2020; 33 (01) 1-12
145 Olson DM, Hemphill III JC. Curing Coma Campaign and its Executive Committee. The Curing Coma Campaign: Challenging the Paradigm for Disorders of Consciousness. Neurocrit Care 2021; 35 (Suppl. 01) 1-3
146 Stevens RD, Diringer MN. Coma science: the territory and the map. Neurocrit Care 2021; 35 (Suppl. 01) 24-26
147 Hammond FM, Katta-Charles S, Russell MB. et al; Curing Coma Campaign and its Contributing Members. Research needs for prognostic modeling and trajectory analysis in patients with disorders of consciousness. Neurocrit Care 2021; 35 (Suppl. 01) 55-67
148 Supady A, Curtis JR, Abrams D. et al. Allocating scarce intensive care resources during the COVID-19 pandemic: practical challenges to theoretical frameworks. Lancet Respir Med 2021; 9 (04) 430-434
149 Supady A, Brodie D, Curtis JR. Ten things to consider when implementing rationing guidelines during a pandemic. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (05) 605-608
150 Wilkinson DJC. Ethics and evidence: learning lessons from pandemic triage. Lancet Respir Med 2021; 9 (04) 328-330
151 Zhang Z, Bokhari F, Guo Y, Goyal H. Prolonged length of stay in the emergency department and increased risk of hospital mortality in patients with sepsis requiring ICU admission. Emerg Med J 2019; 36 (02) 82-87
152 Groenland CNL, Termorshuizen F, Rietdijk WJR. et al. Emergency department to ICU time is associated with hospital mortality: a registry analysis of 14,788 patients from six university hospitals in The Netherlands. Crit Care Med 2019; 47 (11) 1564-1571
153 Mathews KS, Durst MS, Vargas-Torres C, Olson AD, Mazumdar M, Richardson LD. Effect of emergency department and intensive care unit occupancy on admission decisions and outcomes for critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2018; 46 (05) 720-727
154 Singer AJ, Thode Jr HC, Viccellio P, Pines JM. The association between length of emergency department boarding and mortality. Acad Emerg Med 2011; 18 (12) 1324-1329
155 Mohr NM, Wessman BT, Bassin B. et al. Boarding of critically Ill patients in the emergency department. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open 2020; 1 (04) 423-431
156 Al-Qahtani S, Alsultan A, Haddad S. et al. The association of duration of boarding in the emergency room and the outcome of patients admitted to the intensive care unit. BMC Emerg Med 2017; 17 (01) 34
157 Intas G, Stergiannis P, Chalari E, Tsoumakas K, Fildissis G. The impact of ED boarding time, severity of illness, and discharge destination on outcomes of critically ill ED patients. Adv Emerg Nurs J 2012; 34 (02) 164-169
158 Truog RD, Brock DW, Cook DJ. et al; Task Force on Values, Ethics, and Rationing in Critical Care (VERICC). Rationing in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2006; 34 (04) 958-963 , quiz 971
159 Persad G, Wertheimer A, Emanuel EJ. Principles for allocation of scarce medical interventions. Lancet 2009; 373 (9661): 423-431
160 Emanuel EJ, Persad G, Upshur R. et al. Fair allocation of scarce medical resources in the time of COVID-19. N Engl J Med 2020; 382 (21) 2049-2055
161 Maves RC, Downar J, Dichter JR. et al; ACCP Task Force for Mass Critical Care. Triage of scarce critical care resources in COVID-19 an implementation guide for regional allocation: an expert panel report of the task force for mass critical care and the American College of chest physicians. Chest 2020; 158 (01) 212-225
162 Young MJ, Brown SE, Truog RD, Halpern SD. Rationing in the intensive care unit: to disclose or disguise?. Crit Care Med 2012; 40 (01) 261-266
163 Camporesi S, Mori M. Ethicists, doctors and triage decisions: Who should decide? And on what basis?. J Med Ethics 2020:medethics-2020-106499
164 Malm H, May T, Francis LP, Omer SB, Salmon DA, Hood R. Ethics, pandemics, and the duty to treat. Am J Bioeth 2008; 8 (08) 4-19
165 Clark CC. In harm's way: AMA physicians and the duty to treat. J Med Philos 2005; 30 (01) 65-87
166 Jouffre S, Ghazal J, Robert R, Reignier J, Albarracín D. Personalizing patients' advance directives decreases the willingness of intensive care unit residents to stop treatment: a randomized study. J Palliat Med 2018; 21 (08) 1157-1160
167 Rudski JM, Herbsman B, Quitter ED, Bilgram N. Mind perception and willingness to withdraw life support. Neuroethics 2016; 9 (03) 235-242
168 Stahl D, Banja J. The persisting problem of precedent autonomy among persons in a minimally conscious state: the limitations of philosophical analysis and clinical assessment. AJOB Neurosci 2018; 9 (02) 120-127
169 Fins JJ. Disorders of consciousness, disability rights and triage during the COVID-19 pandemic: even the best of intentions can lead to bias. The Journal of Philosophy of Disability 2021; 1: 211-229
170 Lazaridis C. Withdrawal of life-sustaining treatments in perceived devastating brain injury: the key role of uncertainty. Neurocrit Care 2019; 30 (01) 33-41
171 LaRovere KL, Tasker RC. Defining catastrophic brain injury in children leading to coma and disorders of consciousness and the scope of the problem. Curr Opin Pediatr 2020; 32 (06) 750-758
172 Young MJ, Bodien YG, Giacino JT. et al. The neuroethics of disorders of consciousness: a brief history of evolving ideas. Brain 2021; 144 (11) 3291-3310
173 Berger JT. Marginally represented patients and the moral authority of surrogates. Am J Bioeth 2020; 20 (02) 44-48
174 Pope TM, Bennett J, Carson SS. et al. Making medical treatment decisions for unrepresented patients in the ICU: an official American Thoracic Society/American Geriatrics Society policy statement. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 201 (10) 1182-1192
175 Shalowitz DI, Garrett-Mayer E, Wendler D. The accuracy of surrogate decision makers: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166 (05) 493-497
176 Woo JA, Prager KM. Substituted misjudgement. Clin Ethics 2009; 4 (04) 208-210
177 Sulmasy DP, Terry PB, Weisman CS. et al. The accuracy of substituted judgments in patients with terminal diagnoses. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128 (08) 621-629
178 Sulmasy DP, Haller K, Terry PB. More talk, less paper: predicting the accuracy of substituted judgments. Am J Med 1994; 96 (05) 432-438
179 Suhl J, Simons P, Reedy T, Garrick T. Myth of substituted judgment. Surrogate decision making regarding life support is unreliable. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154 (01) 90-96
180 Bravo G, Sene M, Arcand M. Surrogate inaccuracy in predicting older adults' desire for life-sustaining interventions in the event of decisional incapacity: Is it due in part to erroneous quality-of-life assessments?. Int Psychogeriatr 2017; 29 (07) 1061-1068
181 Frey R, Herzog SM, Hertwig R. Deciding on behalf of others: a population survey on procedural preferences for surrogate decision-making. BMJ Open 2018; 8 (07) e022289
182 Spalding R. Accuracy in surrogate end-of-life medical decision-making: a critical review. Appl Psychol Health Well-Being 2021; 13 (01) 3-33
183 Lightfoot N, Kirkova Y, Fox S, Alan S. Overcoming challenges to surrogate decision making for young adults at the end of life. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 2021; 38 (06) 596-600
184 Garg A, Soto AL, Knies AK. et al. Predictors of surrogate decision makers selecting life-sustaining therapy for severe acute brain injury patients: an analysis of US population survey data. Neurocrit Care 2021; 35 (02) 468-479
185 Jardas EJ, Wesley R, Pavlick M, Wendler D, Rid A. Patients' priorities for surrogate decision-making: possible influence of misinformed beliefs. AJOB Empir Bioeth 2021; 1-15
186 Mishkin AD, Allen N, Adira Hulkower J. Increased ethical burden in surrogate decision-making during COVID-19. The Journal of Hospital Ethics 2021; 7 (02) 73-81
187 Pope TM. Making medical decisions for patients without surrogates. N Engl J Med 2013; 369 (21) 1976-1978
188 Kelly AM, Hershey LB, Marsack-Topolewski CNA. A 50-state review of guardianship laws: specific concerns for special needs planning. J Financial Serv Profess 2021; 75 (01) 59-79
189 Shaw MH, Quill TE, Sussman BL. The legacy of Cruzan: balancing the moral agency of surrogates and the state. SMU Law Rev 2020; 73: 179
190 Rose SL, Shelton W. The role of social work in the ICU: reducing family distress and facilitating end-of-life decision-making. J Soc Work End Life Palliat Care 2006; 2 (02) 3-23
191 Delva D, Vanoost S, Bijttebier P, Lauwers P, Wilmer A. Needs and feelings of anxiety of relatives of patients hospitalized in intensive care units: implications for social work. Soc Work Health Care 2002; 35 (04) 21-40
192 Creutzfeldt CJ, Engelberg RA, Healey L. et al. Palliative care needs in the neuro-ICU. Crit Care Med 2015; 43 (08) 1677-1684
193 Bozkurt I, Umana GE, Deora H, Wellington J, Karakoc E, Chaurasia B. Factors affecting neurosurgeons' decisions to forgo life-sustaining treatments after traumatic brain injury. World Neurosurg 2022; 159: e311-e323
194 Lavrijsen J, van den Bosch H, Koopmans R, van Weel C, Froeling P. Events and decision-making in the long-term care of Dutch nursing home patients in a vegetative state. Brain Inj 2005; 19 (01) 67-75
195 Wijdicks EFM, Hwang DY. Predicting coma trajectories: the impact of bias and noise on shared decisions. Neurocrit Care 2021; 35 (02) 291-296
196 Mosenthal AC, Murphy PA, Barker LK, Lavery R, Retano A, Livingston DH. Changing the culture around end-of-life care in the trauma intensive care unit. J Trauma 2008; 64 (06) 1587-1593
197 Foster LW, McLellan LJ. Translating psychosocial insight into ethical discussions supportive of families in end-of-life decision-making. Soc Work Health Care 2002; 35 (03) 37-51
198 Young MJ, Bernat JL. Emerging subspecialties in neurology: neuroethics: an emerging career path in neurology. Neurology 2022; 98 (12) 505-508
199 Cheung EH-L, Cheung JC-H, Yip Y-Y. Raising awareness for time-limited trial discussion upon ICU triage and admission. Intensive Care Med 2022; 48 (02) 240-241
200 McCrea MA, Giacino JT, Barber J. et al; TRACK-TBI Investigators. Functional outcomes over the first year after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury in the Prospective, Longitudinal TRACK-TBI Study. JAMA Neurol 2021; 78 (08) 982-992
201 van Veen E, van der Jagt M, Citerio G. et al; CENTER-TBI Investigators and Participants. Occurrence and timing of withdrawal of life-sustaining measures in traumatic brain injury patients: a CENTER-TBI study. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (10) 1115-1129
202 Williamson T, Ryser MD, Ubel PA. et al. Withdrawal of life-supporting treatment in severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA Surg 2020; 155 (08) 723-731
203 Monti MM, Schnakers C. Flowchart for implementing advanced imaging and electrophysiology in patients with disorders of consciousness: to fMRI or not to fMRI?. Neurology 2022; 98 (11) 452-459
204 Brody H, Miller FG. The research-clinical practice distinction, learning health systems, and relationships. Hastings Cent Rep 2013; 43 (05) 41-47
205 Kowalski CJ, Hutchinson RJ, Mrdjenovich AJ. The ethics of clinical care and the ethics of clinical research: yin and yang. J Med Philos 2017; 42 (01) 7-32
206 Kowalski CJ, Redman RW, Mrdjenovich AJ. The transition from inquiry to evidence to actionable clinical knowledge: a proposed roadmap. J Eval Clin Pract 2021; 27 (03) 667-676
207 Nakase-Richardson R, Whyte J, Giacino JT. et al. Longitudinal outcome of patients with disordered consciousness in the NIDRR TBI Model Systems Programs. J Neurotrauma 2012; 29 (01) 59-65
208 Meixner C, O'Donoghue CR. Access to care for persons with brain injury: ethical frameworks to promote health systems change. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2021; 36 (01) 72-77
209 Jennett B, Plum F. Persistent vegetative state after brain damage. A syndrome in search of a name. Lancet 1972; 1 (7753): 734-737
210 Schnakers C, Vanhaudenhuyse A, Giacino J. et al. Diagnostic accuracy of the vegetative and minimally conscious state: clinical consensus versus standardized neurobehavioral assessment. BMC Neurol 2009; 9 (01) 35
211 Andrews K, Murphy L, Munday R, Littlewood C. Misdiagnosis of the vegetative state: retrospective study in a rehabilitation unit. BMJ 1996; 313 (7048): 13-16
212 Mashour GA, Avidan MS. Capturing covert consciousness. Lancet 2013; 381 (9863): 271-272
213 Giacino JT, Edlow BL. Covert consciousness in the intensive care unit. Trends Neurosci 2019; 42 (12) 844-847
214 Peterson A, Owen AM, Karlawish J. Alive inside. Bioethics 2020; 34 (03) 295-305
215 Young MJ, Edlow BL. The quest for covert consciousness: bringing neuroethics to the bedside. Neurology 2021; 96 (19) 893-896
216 Gosseries O, Zasler ND, Laureys S. Recent advances in disorders of consciousness: focus on the diagnosis. Brain Inj 2014; 28 (09) 1141-1150
217 Thibaut A, Panda R, Annen J. et al. Preservation of brain activity in unresponsive patients identifies MCS star. Ann Neurol 2021; 90 (01) 89-100
218 Stender J, Gosseries O, Bruno M-A. et al. Diagnostic precision of PET imaging and functional MRI in disorders of consciousness: a clinical validation study. Lancet 2014; 384 (9942): 514-522
219 Edlow BL, Naccache L. Unmasking covert language processing in the intensive care unit with electroencephalography. Ann Neurol 2021; 89 (04) 643-645
220 Cruse D, Chennu S, Chatelle C. et al. Relationship between etiology and covert cognition in the minimally conscious state. Neurology 2012; 78 (11) 816-822
221 Schnakers C, Hirsch M, Noé E. et al. Covert cognition in disorders of consciousness: a meta-analysis. Brain Sci 2020; 10 (12) 930
222 Curley WH, Forgacs PB, Voss HU, Conte MM, Schiff ND. Characterization of EEG signals revealing covert cognition in the injured brain. Brain 2018; 141 (05) 1404-1421
223 Nachev P, Hacker PM. Covert cognition in the persistent vegetative state. Prog Neurobiol 2010; 91 (01) 68-76
224 Naro A, Russo M, Leo A. et al. Cortical connectivity modulation induced by cerebellar oscillatory transcranial direct current stimulation in patients with chronic disorders of consciousness: a marker of covert cognition?. Clin Neurophysiol 2016; 127 (03) 1845-1854
225 Edlow BL, Chatelle C, Spencer CA. et al. Early detection of consciousness in patients with acute severe traumatic brain injury. Brain 2017; 140 (09) 2399-2414
226 Legouy C, Girard-Stein L, Wanono R. et al. Association of standard electroencephalography findings with mortality and command following in mechanically ventilated patients remaining unresponsive after sedation interruption. Crit Care Med 2021; 49 (04) e423-e432
227 Formisano R, D'Ippolito M, Catani S. Functional locked-in syndrome as recovery phase of vegetative state. Brain Inj 2013; 27 (11) 1332
228 Formisano R, Catani S, Caravasso CF, D'Ippolito M, de Pasquale F, Sabatini U. Islands of consciousness in vegetative state or functional locked-in syndrome?. J Neurol Sci 2013; 333: e554-e5
229 Kondziella D, Friberg CK, Frokjaer VG, Fabricius M, Møller K. Preserved consciousness in vegetative and minimal conscious states: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2016; 87 (05) 485-492
230 Seel RT, Sherer M, Whyte J. et al; American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine, Brain Injury-Interdisciplinary Special Interest Group, Disorders of Consciousness Task Force. Assessment scales for disorders of consciousness: evidence-based recommendations for clinical practice and research. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2010; 91 (12) 1795-1813
231 Wannez S, Heine L, Thonnard M, Gosseries O, Laureys S, Collaborators CSG. Coma Science Group collaborators. The repetition of behavioral assessments in diagnosis of disorders of consciousness. Ann Neurol 2017; 81 (06) 883-889
232 Posner JB, Plum F, Saper CB, Schiff N. Plum and Posner's Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma. United States: Oxford University Press; 2007
233 Naci L, Cusack R, Anello M, Owen AM. A common neural code for similar conscious experiences in different individuals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111 (39) 14277-14282
234 Simony E, Honey CJ, Chen J. et al. Dynamic reconfiguration of the default mode network during narrative comprehension. Nat Commun 2016; 7 (01) 12141
235 Naci L, Sinai L, Owen AM. Detecting and interpreting conscious experiences in behaviorally non-responsive patients. Neuroimage 2017; 145 (Pt B): 304-313
236 Naci L, Graham M, Owen AM, Weijer C. Covert narrative capacity: mental life in patients thought to lack consciousness. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2016; 4 (01) 61-70
237 Coleman MR, Davis MH, Rodd JM. et al. Towards the routine use of brain imaging to aid the clinical diagnosis of disorders of consciousness. Brain 2009; 132 (Pt 9): 2541-2552
238 Coffey BJ, Threlkeld ZD, Foulkes AS, Bodien YG, Edlow BL. Reemergence of the language network during recovery from severe traumatic brain injury: a pilot functional MRI study. Brain Inj 2021; 35 (12-13): 1552-1562
239 Engemann DA, Raimondo F, King J-R. et al. Robust EEG-based cross-site and cross-protocol classification of states of consciousness. Brain 2018; 141 (11) 3179-3192
240 Demertzi A, Antonopoulos G, Heine L. et al. Intrinsic functional connectivity differentiates minimally conscious from unresponsive patients. Brain 2015; 138 (Pt 9): 2619-2631
241 Demertzi A, Tagliazucchi E, Dehaene S. et al. Human consciousness is supported by dynamic complex patterns of brain signal coordination. Sci Adv 2019; 5 (02) eaat7603
242 Fernández-Espejo D, Rossit S, Owen AM. A thalamocortical mechanism for the absence of overt motor behavior in covertly aware patients. JAMA Neurol 2015; 72 (12) 1442-1450
243 Bayne T, Seth AK, Massimini M. Are there islands of awareness?. Trends Neurosci 2020; 43 (01) 6-16
244 Vanhaudenhuyse A, Noirhomme Q, Tshibanda LJ-F. et al. Default network connectivity reflects the level of consciousness in non-communicative brain-damaged patients. Brain 2010; 133 (Pt 1): 161-171
245 Bayne T, Hohwy J, Owen AM. Reforming the taxonomy in disorders of consciousness. Ann Neurol 2017; 82 (06) 866-872
246 Schiff ND. Cognitive motor dissociation following severe brain injuries. JAMA Neurol 2015; 72 (12) 1413-1415
247 Young MJ. “Consciousness” as a vague predicate. AJOB Neurosci 2017; 8 (03) 157-159
248 Bayne T, Hohwy J, Owen AM. Are there levels of consciousness?. Trends Cogn Sci 2016; 20 (06) 405-413
249 Peterson A, Bayne T. A taxonomy for disorders of consciousness that takes consciousness seriously. AJOB Neurosci 2017; 8 (03) 153-155
250 Bruno M-A, Vanhaudenhuyse A, Thibaut A, Moonen G, Laureys S. From unresponsive wakefulness to minimally conscious PLUS and functional locked-in syndromes: recent advances in our understanding of disorders of consciousness. J Neurol 2011; 258 (07) 1373-1384
251 Whitnall L, McMillan TM, Murray GD, Teasdale GM. Disability in young people and adults after head injury: 5-7 year follow up of a prospective cohort study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2006; 77 (05) 640-645
252 McMillan TM, Teasdale GM, Stewart E. Disability in young people and adults after head injury: 12-14 year follow-up of a prospective cohort. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2012; 83 (11) 1086-1091
253 Lopez-Rolon A, Vogler J, Howell K. et al. Severe disorders of consciousness after acquired brain injury: a single-centre long-term follow-up study. NeuroRehabilitation 2017; 40 (04) 509-517
254 Stocchetti N, Zanier ER. Chronic impact of traumatic brain injury on outcome and quality of life: a narrative review. Crit Care 2016; 20 (01) 148
255 Scholten AC, Haagsma JA, Andriessen TM. et al. Health-related quality of life after mild, moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: patterns and predictors of suboptimal functioning during the first year after injury. Injury 2015; 46 (04) 616-624
256 Jimmo v. Sebelius Settlement Agreement Fact Sheet. Accessed June 30, 2022 at: https://www.cms.gov/medicare/medicare-fee-for-service-payment/snfpps/downloads/jimmo-factsheet.pdf2021
257 Fins JJ, Wright MS, Kraft C. et al. Whither the “improvement standard”? Coverage for severe brain injury after Jimmo v. Sebelius. J Law Med Ethics 2016; 44 (01) 182-193
258 Yaguchi A, Truog RD, Curtis JR. et al. International differences in end-of-life attitudes in the intensive care unit: results of a survey. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165 (17) 1970-1975
259 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) - Article 2. Accessed June 30, 2022 at: https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities/article-2-definitions.html
260 Taylor DB. Communicating with vegetative state patients: the role of neuroimaging in American disability law. Stanford Law Rev 2014; 66 (06) 1451-1485
261 ADA Title III Regulation 28 CFR Part 36; Sec. 36.303 Auxiliary aids and services.
262 Young MJ, Lin DJ, Hochberg LR. Brain–Computer Interfaces in Neurorecovery and Neurorehabilitation. Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.. 2021
263 Young MJ. Brain-Computer Interfaces and the Philosophy of Action. Taylor & Francis. 2020: 4-6
264 Bowen C, Palmer S, Yeates G. A Relational Approach to Rehabilitation: Thinking about Relationships after Brain Injury. Routledge. 2018
265 Wright MS, Kraft C, Ulrich MR, Fins JJ. Disorders of consciousness, agency, and health care decision making: lessons from a developmental model. AJOB Neurosci 2018; 9 (01) 56-64
266 Fins JJ. Mosaic decision making and reemergent agency after severe brain injury. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 2018; 27 (01) 163-174
267 Fins JJ, Wright MS, Bagenstos SR. Disorders of Consciousness and Disability Law. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 2020. Elsevier; 2020: 1732-1739
268 Peterson A. A critical analysis of Joseph Fins' mosaic decision making: a response to “mosaic decision making and reemergent agency after severe brain injury” (CQ 27 (1)). Camb Q Healthc Ethics 2019; 28 (04) 725-736
269 Peterson A, Karlawish J, Largent E. Supported decision making with people at the margins of autonomy. Am J Bioeth 2021; 21 (11) 4-18
270 Wright MS. Dementia, autonomy, and supported healthcare decision making. Md L Rev 2019; 79: 257
271 Largent EA, Peterson A. Supported decision-making in the United States and abroad. J Health Care Law Policy 2020; 23: 271
272 LoBue C, Munro C, Schaffert J. et al. Traumatic brain injury and risk of long-term brain changes, accumulation of pathological markers, and developing dementia: a review. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 70 (03) 629-654
273 Graham NS, Sharp DJ. Understanding neurodegeneration after traumatic brain injury: from mechanisms to clinical trials in dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2019; 90 (11) 1221-1233
274 Stein MB, Jain S, Giacino JT. et al; TRACK-TBI Investigators. Risk of posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression in civilian patients after mild traumatic brain injury: a TRACK-TBI study. JAMA Psychiatry 2019; 76 (03) 249-258
275 Langley J, Johnson S, Slatyer M, Skilbeck CE, Thomas M. Issues of loss to follow-up in a population study of traumatic brain injury (TBI) followed to 3 years post-trauma. Brain Inj 2010; 24 (7-8): 939-947
276 Langley JD, Lilley R, Wilson S. et al. Factors associated with non-participation in one or two follow-up phases in a cohort study of injured adults. Inj Prev 2013; 19 (06) 428-433
277 Crandall M, Rink RA, Shaheen AW, Butler B, Unger E, Zollman FS. Patterns and predictors of follow-up in patients with mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2014; 28 (11) 1359-1364
278 Braaf S, Ameratunga S, Christie N. et al. Care coordination experiences of people with traumatic brain injury and their family members in the 4-years after injury: a qualitative analysis. Brain Inj 2019; 33 (05) 574-583
279 Cope DN, Mayer NH, Cervelli L. Development of systems of care for persons with traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2005; 20 (02) 128-142
280 Downing M, Hicks A, Braaf S. et al. Factors facilitating recovery following severe traumatic brain injury: a qualitative study. Neuropsychol Rehabil 2021; 31 (06) 889-913
281 Katz DI, Zasler ND, Zafonte RD. Clinical continuum of care and natural history. Brain Injury Medicine: Principles and Practice. 2007: 3-13
282 Muenchberger H, Kendall E, Collings C. Beyond crisis care in brain injury rehabilitation in Australia: a conversation worth having. J Prim Care Community Health 2011; 2 (01) 60-64
283 Lamontagne M-E, Swaine BR, Lavoie A, Careau E. Analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the network form of organization of traumatic brain injury service delivery systems. Brain Inj 2011; 25 (12) 1188-1197
284 McDermott GL, McDonnell AM. Acquired brain injury services in the Republic of Ireland: experiences and perceptions of families and professionals. Brain Inj 2014; 28 (01) 81-91
285 Dwyer A, Heary C, Ward M, MacNeela P. Adding insult to brain injury: young adults' experiences of residing in nursing homes following acquired brain injury. Disabil Rehabil 2019; 41 (01) 33-43