Download PDF
Semin Neurol 2023; 43(03): 439-453
DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-1771512
Review Article

Venous Pathologies and Interventions of the Head

Tej Ishaan Mehta
1   The United States Air Force Medical Corps, Falls Church, Virginia
2   Department of Radiology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland
,
Anirudh Arun
2   Department of Radiology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland
,
Caleb Heiberger
2   Department of Radiology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland
,
David Cognetti
3   Department of Otolaryngology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
,
Tyler R. Ray
4   Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Honolulu, Hawaii
5   Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Honolulu, Hawaii
,
Matthew R. Amans
6   Department of Radiology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
7   Department of Neurosurgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
,
Kyle Fargen
8   Department of Neurosurgery, Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
,
Thierry A.G.M. Huisman
9   Department of Radiology, Texas Children's Hospital and Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
,
Ferdinand Hui
10   Department of Radiology, The Queen's Medical Center, Honolulu, Hawaii
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Intracranial venous pathologies are a historically underrecognized group of disorders that can have a devastating impact on patients. Despite advancements in peripheral venous disorders and arterial neurointerventions, intracranial venous pathologies have received comparatively little attention. Understanding the anatomy, physiology, clinical relevance, and treatment options of intracranial venous pathologies is fundamental to evolving therapies and research priorities. This article provides an overview of major intracranial venous pathologies, the respective pathophysiologies, and treatment options.

Keywords

venous - intervention - trauma - congenital - neurovascular - venous sinus thrombosis - venous malformation - endovascular therapy - radiology - stroke


Publication History

Article published online:
10 August 2023

© 2023. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Pollay M. The function and structure of the cerebrospinal fluid outflow system. Cerebrospinal Fluid Res 2010; 7: 9
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Grzybowski DM, Herderick EE, Kapoor KG, Holman DW, Katz SE. Human arachnoid granulations Part I: a technique for quantifying area and distribution on the superior surface of the cerebral cortex. Cerebrospinal Fluid Res 2007; 4: 6
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Lee K, Kittel C, Aldridge JB, Wolfe SQ, Brown P, Fargen KM. Correlation between intracranial pressure and venous sinus pressures in patients undergoing cerebral venography and manometry. J Neurointerv Surg 2021; 13 (12) 1162-1166
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Brown R, Benveniste H, Black SE. et al. Understanding the role of the perivascular space in cerebral small vessel disease. Cardiovasc Res 2018; 114 (11) 1462-1473
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Yao D, Zhang R, Xie M. et al. Updated understanding of the glial-vascular unit in central nervous system disorders. Neurosci Bull 2023; 39 (03) 503-518
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Arun A, Amans MR, Higgins N. et al. A proposed framework for cerebral venous congestion. Neuroradiol J 2022; 35 (01) 94-111
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Primiani CT, Lawton M, Hillis AE, Hui FK. Pearls & Oy-sters: cerebral venous congestion associated with cognitive decline treated by jugular release. Neurology 2022; 99 (13) 577-580
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Smith ER, Caton MT, Villanueva-Meyer JE. et al. Brain herniation (encephalocele) into arachnoid granulations: prevalence and association with pulsatile tinnitus and idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Neuroradiology 2022; 64 (09) 1747-1754
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Sumi K, Otani N, Mori F, Yamamuro S, Oshima H, Yoshino A. Venous hypertension caused by a meningioma involving the sigmoid sinus: case report. BMC Neurol 2021; 21 (01) 119
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Daggubati LC, Liu KC. Intracranial venous sinus stenting: a review of idiopathic intracranial hypertension and expanding indications. Cureus 2019; 11 (02) e4008
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Bateman GA, Stevens SA, Stimpson J. A mathematical model of idiopathic intracranial hypertension incorporating increased arterial inflow and variable venous outflow collapsibility. J Neurosurg 2009; 110 (03) 446-456
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Farb RI, Vanek I, Scott JN. et al. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension: the prevalence and morphology of sinovenous stenosis. Neurology 2003; 60 (09) 1418-1424
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Higgins JN, Gillard JH, Owler BK, Harkness K, Pickard JD. MR venography in idiopathic intracranial hypertension: unappreciated and misunderstood. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004; 75 (04) 621-625
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Fargen KM. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension is not idiopathic: proposal for a new nomenclature and patient classification. J Neurointerv Surg 2020; 12 (02) 110-114
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Andrews LE, Liu GT, Ko MW. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension and obesity. Horm Res Paediatr 2014; 81 (04) 217-225
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Subramaniam S, Fletcher WA. Obesity and weight loss in idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a narrative review. J Neuroophthalmol 2017; 37 (02) 197-205
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Higgins JN, Garnett MR, Pickard JD, Axon PR. An evaluation of styloidectomy as an adjunct or alternative to jugular stenting in idiopathic intracranial hypertension and disturbances of cranial venous outflow. J Neurol Surg B Skull Base 2017; 78 (02) 158-163
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Wall M, Kupersmith MJ, Kieburtz KD. et al; NORDIC Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension Study Group. The idiopathic intracranial hypertension treatment trial: clinical profile at baseline. JAMA Neurol 2014; 71 (06) 693-701
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Piper RJ, Kalyvas AV, Young AM, Hughes MA, Jamjoom AA, Fouyas IP. Interventions for idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 2015 (08) CD003434
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Kalyvas AV, Hughes M, Koutsarnakis C. et al. Efficacy, complications and cost of surgical interventions for idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a systematic review of the literature. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2017; 159 (01) 33-49
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Higgins JN, Cousins C, Owler BK, Sarkies N, Pickard JD. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension: 12 cases treated by venous sinus stenting. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003; 74 (12) 1662-1666
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Rohr A, Dörner L, Stingele R, Buhl R, Alfke K, Jansen O. Reversibility of venous sinus obstruction in idiopathic intracranial hypertension. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2007; 28 (04) 656-659
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Haraldsson H, Leach JR, Kao EI. et al. Reduced jet velocity in venous flow after CSF drainage: assessing hemodynamic causes of pulsatile tinnitus. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2019; 40 (05) 849-854
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Ferro JM, Correia M, Pontes C, Baptista MV, Pita F. Cerebral Venous Thrombosis Portuguese Collaborative Study Group (Venoport). Cerebral vein and dural sinus thrombosis in Portugal: 1980-1998. Cerebrovasc Dis 2001; 11 (03) 177-182
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Bousser MG, Chiras J, Bories J, Castaigne P. Cerebral venous thrombosis–a review of 38 cases. Stroke 1985; 16 (02) 199-213
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Ferro JM, Canhão P, Stam J. et al; ISCVT Investigators. Delay in the diagnosis of cerebral vein and dural sinus thrombosis: influence on outcome. Stroke 2009; 40 (09) 3133-3138
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Ferro JM, Canhão P, Bousser MG, Stam J, Barinagarrementeria F. ISCVT Investigators. Early seizures in cerebral vein and dural sinus thrombosis: risk factors and role of antiepileptics. Stroke 2008; 39 (04) 1152-1158
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Ferro JM, Canhão P, Stam J, Bousser MG, Barinagarrementeria F. ISCVT Investigators. Prognosis of cerebral vein and dural sinus thrombosis: results of the International Study on Cerebral Vein and Dural Sinus Thrombosis (ISCVT). Stroke 2004; 35 (03) 664-670
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Agostoni E. Headache in cerebral venous thrombosis. Neurol Sci 2004; 25 (Suppl. 03) S206-S210
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Coutinho JM, Ferro JM, Canhão P. et al. Cerebral venous and sinus thrombosis in women. Stroke 2009; 40 (07) 2356-2361
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Nguyen TN, Qureshi MM, Klein P. et al; SVIN COVID-19 Global COVID Stroke Registry. Global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cerebral venous thrombosis and mortality. J Stroke 2022; 24 (02) 256-265
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Canedo-Antelo M, Baleato-González S, Mosqueira AJ. et al. Radiologic clues to cerebral venous thrombosis. Radiographics 2019; 39 (06) 1611-1628
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 de Bruijn SF, Stam J. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of anticoagulant treatment with low-molecular-weight heparin for cerebral sinus thrombosis. Stroke 1999; 30 (03) 484-488
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Einhäupl KM, Villringer A, Meister W. et al. Heparin treatment in sinus venous thrombosis. Lancet 1991; 338 (8767) 597-600
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Stam J, De Bruijn SF, DeVeber G. Anticoagulation for cerebral sinus thrombosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; (04) CD002005
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Saposnik G, Barinagarrementeria F, Brown Jr RD. et al; American Heart Association Stroke Council and the Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Diagnosis and management of cerebral venous thrombosis: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2011; 42 (04) 1158-1192
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Ferro JM, Coutinho JM, Dentali F. et al; RE-SPECT CVT Study Group. Safety and efficacy of dabigatran etexilate vs dose-adjusted warfarin in patients with cerebral venous thrombosis: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol 2019; 76 (12) 1457-1465
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Yaghi S, Shu L, Bakradze E. et al. Direct oral anticoagulants versus warfarin in the treatment of cerebral venous thrombosis (ACTION-CVT): a multicenter international study. Stroke 2022; 53 (03) 728-738
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Scutelnic A, Krzywicka K, Mbroh J. et al. Management of cerebral venous thrombosis due to adenoviral COVID-19 vaccination. Ann Neurol 2022; 92 (04) 562-573
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Siegler JE, Klein P, Yaghi S. et al. Cerebral vein thrombosis with vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia. Stroke 2021; 52 (09) 3045-3053
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Siddiqui FM, Dandapat S, Banerjee C. et al. Mechanical thrombectomy in cerebral venous thrombosis: systematic review of 185 cases. Stroke 2015; 46 (05) 1263-1268
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Siegler JE, Shu L, Yaghi S. et al; ACTION-CVT Investigators. Endovascular therapy for cerebral vein thrombosis: a propensity-matched analysis of anticoagulation in the treatment of cerebral venous thrombosis. Neurosurgery 2022; 91 (05) 749-755
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Coutinho JM, Zuurbier SM, Bousser M-G. et al; TO-ACT investigators. Effect of endovascular treatment with medical management vs standard care on severe cerebral venous thrombosis: the TO-ACT randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol 2020; 77 (08) 966-973
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Eskey CJ, Meyers PM, Nguyen TN. et al; American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention and Stroke Council. Indications for the performance of intracranial endovascular neurointerventional procedures: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2018; 137 (21) e661-e689
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Dalton A, Dobson G, Prasad M, Mukerji N. De novo intracerebral arteriovenous malformations and a review of the theories of their formation. Br J Neurosurg 2018; 32 (03) 305-311
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Rutledge C, Cooke DL, Hetts SW, Abla AA. Brain arteriovenous malformations. Handb Clin Neurol 2021; 176: 171-178
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Derdeyn CP, Zipfel GJ, Albuquerque FC. et al; American Heart Association Stroke Council. Management of brain arteriovenous malformations: a scientific statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2017; 48 (08) e200-e224
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Gross BA, Du R. Natural history of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 2013; 118 (02) 437-443
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Al-Shahi Salman R. The outlook for adults with epileptic seizure(s) associated with cerebral cavernous malformations or arteriovenous malformations. Epilepsia 2012; 53 (Suppl. 04) 34-42
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Garcin B, Houdart E, Porcher R. et al. Epileptic seizures at initial presentation in patients with brain arteriovenous malformation. Neurology 2012; 78 (09) 626-631
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Flemming KD, Lanzino G. Management of unruptured intracranial aneurysms and cerebrovascular malformations. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2017; 23 (1, Cerebrovascular Disease): 181-210
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Spetzler RF, Martin NA. A proposed grading system for arteriovenous malformations. J Neurosurg 1986; 65 (04) 476-483
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Kim H, Abla AA, Nelson J. et al. Validation of the supplemented Spetzler-Martin grading system for brain arteriovenous malformations in a multicenter cohort of 1009 surgical patients. Neurosurgery 2015; 76 (01) 25-31 , discussion 31–32, quiz 32–33
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 van Beijnum J, van der Worp HB, Buis DR. et al. Treatment of brain arteriovenous malformations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2011; 306 (18) 2011-2019
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Mohr JP, Parides MK, Stapf C. et al; international ARUBA investigators. Medical management with or without interventional therapy for unruptured brain arteriovenous malformations (ARUBA): a multicentre, non-blinded, randomised trial. Lancet 2014; 383 (9917) 614-621
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Barr JC, Ogilvy CS. Selection of treatment modalities or observation of arteriovenous malformations. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2012; 23 (01) 63-75
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Solomon RA, Connolly Jr ES. Arteriovenous malformations of the brain. N Engl J Med 2017; 376 (19) 1859-1866
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Graffeo CS, Sahgal A, De Salles A. et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery for Spetzler-Martin Grade I and II arteriovenous malformations: International Society of Stereotactic Radiosurgery (ISRS) practice guideline. Neurosurgery 2020; 87 (03) 442-452
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Brown Jr RD, Flemming KD, Meyer FB. et al. Natural history, evaluation, and management of intracranial vascular malformations. Mayo Clinic Proc 2005; 80 (02) 269-281
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Cohen-Inbar O, Lee C-C, Xu Z, Schlesinger D, Sheehan JP. A quantitative analysis of adverse radiation effects following Gamma Knife radiosurgery for arteriovenous malformations. J Neurosurg 2015; 123 (04) 945-953
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Ding D, Starke RM, Kano H. et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery for Spetzler-Martin Grade III arteriovenous malformations: an international multicenter study. J Neurosurg 2017; 126 (03) 859-871
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Starke RM, Kano H, Ding D. et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery for cerebral arteriovenous malformations: evaluation of long-term outcomes in a multicenter cohort. J Neurosurg 2017; 126 (01) 36-44
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Schwyzer L, Yen C-P, Evans A, Zavoian S, Steiner L. Long-term results of gamma knife surgery for partially embolized arteriovenous malformations. Neurosurgery 2012; 71 (06) 1139-1147 , discussion 1147–1148
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Kano H, Kondziolka D, Flickinger JC. et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery for arteriovenous malformations after embolization: a case-control study. J Neurosurg 2012; 117 (02) 265-275
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 McConnell KA, Tjoumakaris SI, Allen J. et al. Neuroendovascular management of dural arteriovenous malformations. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2009; 20 (04) 431-439
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 van Dijk JMC, terBrugge KG, Willinsky RA, Wallace MC. Clinical course of cranial dural arteriovenous fistulas with long-term persistent cortical venous reflux. Stroke 2002; 33 (05) 1233-1236
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Baharvahdat H, Ooi YC, Kim WJ. et al. Updates in the management of cranial dural arteriovenous fistula. Stroke Vasc Neurol 2019; 5 (01) 50-58
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Castaño C, Remollo S, García-Sort R, Domínguez C, Terceño M. Treatment of Barrow type ‘B’ carotid cavernous fistulas with flow diverter stent (Pipeline). Neuroradiol J 2017; 30 (06) 607-614
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Barrow DL, Spector RH, Braun IF, Landman JA, Tindall SC, Tindall GT. Classification and treatment of spontaneous carotid-cavernous sinus fistulas. J Neurosurg 1985; 62 (02) 248-256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Kupersmith MJ, Berenstein A, Choi IS, Warren F, Flamm E. Management of nontraumatic vascular shunts involving the cavernous sinus. Ophthalmology 1988; 95 (01) 121-130
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Taki W, Nakahara I, Nishi S. et al. Pathogenetic and therapeutic considerations of carotid-cavernous sinus fistulas. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1994; 127 (1–2): 6-14
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Debrun GM, Viñuela F, Fox AJ, Davis KR, Ahn HS. Indications for treatment and classification of 132 carotid-cavernous fistulas. Neurosurgery 1988; 22 (02) 285-289
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 de Keizer R. Carotid-cavernous and orbital arteriovenous fistulas: ocular features, diagnostic and hemodynamic considerations in relation to visual impairment and morbidity. Orbit 2003; 22 (02) 121-142
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Stiebel-Kalish H, Setton A, Nimii Y. et al. Cavernous sinus dural arteriovenous malformations: patterns of venous drainage are related to clinical signs and symptoms. Ophthalmology 2002; 109 (09) 1685-1691
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Miller NR. Diagnosis and management of dural carotid-cavernous sinus fistulas. Neurosurg Focus 2007; 23 (05) E13
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Kim MS, Han DH, Kwon O-K, Oh CW, Han MH. Clinical characteristics of dural arteriovenous fistula. J Clin Neurosci 2002; 9 (02) 147-155
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Hirai T, Korogi Y, Hamatake S. et al. Three-dimensional FISP imaging in the evaluation of carotid cavernous fistula: comparison with contrast-enhanced CT and spin-echo MR. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1998; 19 (02) 253-259
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Gemmete JJ, Chaudhary N, Pandey A, Ansari S. Treatment of carotid cavernous fistulas. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2010; 12 (01) 43-53
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Phelps CD, Thompson HS, Ossoinig KC. The diagnosis and prognosis of atypical carotid-cavernous fistula (red-eyed shunt syndrome). Am J Ophthalmol 1982; 93 (04) 423-436
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Gupta AK, Purkayastha S, Krishnamoorthy T. et al. Endovascular treatment of direct carotid cavernous fistulae: a pictorial review. Neuroradiology 2006; 48 (11) 831-839
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Meyers PM, Halbach VV, Dowd CF. et al. Dural carotid cavernous fistula: definitive endovascular management and long-term follow-up. Am J Ophthalmol 2002; 134 (01) 85-92
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Lewis AI, Tomsick TA, Tew Jr JM. Management of 100 consecutive direct carotid-cavernous fistulas: results of treatment with detachable balloons. Neurosurgery 1995; 36 (02) 239-244 , discussion 244–245
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Halbach VV, Higashida RT, Hieshima GB, Reicher M, Norman D, Newton TH. Dural fistulas involving the cavernous sinus: results of treatment in 30 patients. Radiology 1987; 163 (02) 437-442
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Kai Y, Hamada J, Morioka M, Yano S, Kuratsu J. Treatment of cavernous sinus dural arteriovenous fistulae by external manual carotid compression. Neurosurgery 2007; 60 (02) 253-257 , discussion 257–258
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Brevis Nuñez F, Dohna-Schwake C. Epidemiology, diagnostics, and management of vein of Galen malformation. Pediatr Neurol 2021; 119: 50-55
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Lasjaunias PL, Chng SM, Sachet M, Alvarez H, Rodesch G, Garcia-Monaco R. The management of vein of Galen aneurysmal malformations. Neurosurgery 2006; 59 (05, Suppl 3): S184-S194 , discussion S3–S13
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Hansen D, Kan PT, Reddy GD, Mohan AC, Jea A, Lam S. Pediatric knowledge update: approach to the management of vein of Galen aneurysmal malformations in neonates. Surg Neurol Int 2016; 7 (Suppl. 12) S317-S321
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Mooney MA, Zabramski JM. Developmental venous anomalies. Handb Clin Neurol 2017; 143: 279-282
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Malik GM, Morgan JK, Boulos RS, Ausman JI. Venous angiomas: an underestimated cause of intracranial hemorrhage. Surg Neurol 1988; 30 (05) 350-358
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 McLaughlin MR, Kondziolka D, Flickinger JC, Lunsford S, Lunsford LD. The prospective natural history of cerebral venous malformations. Neurosurgery 1998; 43 (02) 195-200 , discussion 200–201
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Hon JM, Bhattacharya JJ, Counsell CE. et al; SIVMS Collaborators. The presentation and clinical course of intracranial developmental venous anomalies in adults: a systematic review and prospective, population-based study. Stroke 2009; 40 (06) 1980-1985
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Bokhari R, You E, Bakhaidar M. et al. Dural venous sinus thrombosis in patients presenting with blunt traumatic brain injuries and skull fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World Neurosurg 2020; 142: 495-50 -5.e3
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Dawoud FM, Feldman MJ, Yengo-Kahn AM. et al. Traumatic cerebrovascular injuries associated with gunshot wounds to the head: a single-institution ten-year experience. World Neurosurg 2021; 146: e1031-e1044
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Savardekar AR, Patra DP, Narayan V, Thakur JD, Nanda A. Incidence, pathophysiology, and prevention strategies for cerebral venous complications after neurologic surgery: a systematic review of the literature. World Neurosurg 2018; 119: 294-299
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Quraishi HA, Wax MK, Granke K, Rodman SM. Internal jugular vein thrombosis after functional and selective neck dissection. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1997; 123 (09) 969-973
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Jia M, Guo Z-N, Jin H. et al. Venous sinus stenting improves cerebral autoregulation in a patient with venous sinus stenosis: a case report. BMC Neurol 2020; 20 (01) 9
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Sadik J-C, Jianu DC, Sadik R. et al. Imaging of cerebral venous thrombosis. Life (Basel) 2022; 12 (08) 1215
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Kumar S, Sharma M, Srivastava T, Sinha VD. Infratentorial hemorrhagic cerebral proliferative angiopathy: a rare presentation of a rare disease. Asian J Neurosurg 2015; 10 (03) 240-242
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Watanabe J, Maruya J, Nishimaki K, Ito Y. Onyx removal after embolization of a superior sagittal sinus dural arteriovenous fistula involving scalp artery. Surg Neurol Int 2016; 7 (Suppl. 14) S410-S414
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Marín-Fernández A-B, Cariati P, Román-Ramos M, Fernandez-Solis J, Martínez-Lara I. Posttraumatic carotid-cavernous fistula: Pathogenetic mechanisms, diagnostic management and proper treatment. A case report. J Clin Exp Dent 2016; 8 (02) e226-e229
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Bhat V, Bhat V. Neonatal neurosonography: A pictorial essay. Indian J Radiol Imaging 2014; 24: 389-400
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Kariyappa KD, Krishnaswami M, Gnanaprakasam F, Ramachandran M, Krishnaswamy V. Spontaneous thrombosis of vein of Galen malformation. J Pediatr Neurosci 2016; 11 (03) 264-266
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Chavhan GB, Shroff MM. Twenty classic signs in neuroradiology: a pictorial essay. Indian J Radiol Imaging 2009; 19 (02) 135-145
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar